Token Economy: Examples and Applications in ABA

Within the field of Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA), professionals use reinforcement to strengthen behavior. Decades of research support the use of token economy as a means of delivering reinforcement in a variety of settings to address diverse behaviors (Matson & Boisjoli, 2009; Boniecki & Moore, 2203; Carnett et al., 2014). Token economy offers a flexible way to deliver reinforcement to meet the needs of learners and interventionists.

Token economy is a reinforcement strategy where generalized reinforcers (tokens) are exchanged for backup reinforcers (something the learner wants). Interventionists create token economy systems that reinforce skills such as academics, communication, self-help, or prosocial behavior (Matson & Boisjoli, 2009). Research supports the use of token economy in various environments including schools, homes, summer camps, and inpatient programs. This broad applicability makes it an essential tool in your ABA toolbox.

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Contents

The World Economy as a Token Economy System
Introducing Token Economy
Creating Token Systems that Motivate
Token Economy Examples
Advantages and Disadvantages of Token Economy
Other Considerations for Token Economy
Ethical Considerations When Implementing Token Economy
Research Related to Implementing Token Economy
References and Related Reading

The World Economy as a Token Economy System

Token economy works much like our world economy where money serves as the token that allows for the purchase of backup reinforcers (i.e. anything we want of comparable value). As adults, we go to work to earn money. The money by itself isn’t worth anything. It’s a piece of paper or a lump of metal. But it has value because it can be exchanged for things we need and want. With money, we can buy food, shelter, and entertainment.

Watch this quick video comparing token economy to the world economy:

Viewing token economy from this perspective helps professionals utilize the strategy effectively. If you wouldn’t work all week for a few pretzels, don’t expect your learner to complete a mountain of work for something they don’t value. The amount of work needed to earn the tokens must match the learner’s perceived effort.

The word “perceived” is key in the previous sentence. Even if you believe something is very easy for your learner, they might perceive it as very difficult. Identify their level of perceived effort by paying close attention to their behavior when you present a task. Conduct reinforcer assessments to determine how much the learner is willing to work for a specified reinforcer. To learn more about reinforcer assessments, read our post: Choosing Reinforcers: Reinforcer Assessments Or Preference Assessments.

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Introducing Token Economy

How you introduce token economy to your learner depends on many factors including the skills and interests of the learner, resources available, and who will deliver the tokens. You must first decide:

• What tokens you will use
• What criteria the learner must meet to earn a token
• How many tokens the learner must earn to trade for the backup reinforcer
• What backup reinforcers you will offer the learner

Token economies range from very simple to highly complex. Any system where generalized reinforcers (reinforcers with no inherent value) are exchanged for backup reinforcers (something of value to the individual). The right system depends on the skills of both the interventionist and the learner.

When to Use Token Economy

Although you can apply token economy widely, there are several factors to consider before choosing this type of reinforcement. Use token economy:

• With learners who benefit from structured reinforcement
• When you want to avoid an FR1 ratio of reinforcement, but your learner continues to require frequent reinforcement
• You need an intervention that’s easy to use
• When your learner quickly satiates on available tangible reinforcers

Token economy is effective for many different types of learners. Learners with a lot of language quickly develop an understanding of the value of tokens. Simply explain what they earn in exchange for a designated number of tokens. For children with sufficient language to understand when you explain the contingency, clearly spell out the criteria for earning tokens and what the choices the child has for a backup reinforcer. Many children, even those with a solid vocabulary, benefit from visual representations for both the expectations and the reinforcer choices.

How to teach that tokens have value

For learners with more limited language abilities, token economy can still be an effective intervention, but you must teach the value of tokens in a different way. For these learners:

1. Begin with a simple token board that clearly shows where tokens belong on the board.
2. Remove only 1 token for the board.
3. When the learner earns a token, provide immediate tangible reinforcement along with the token and verbal praise “Nice work! You earned a token! Here’s ____.”
4. After the learner has several opportunities to earn the identified reinforcer, remove 2 tokens from the board.
5. When the learner earns the first token, pair that token with a reinforcer (ideally something edible or something else you don’t need to remove such as physical touch) along with verbal praise “You did it! You earned a token! One more to go!”
6. When the learner earns the second token, provide immediate tangible reinforcement along with the token and verbal praise “Nice work! You earned a token! Here’s ____.”
7. Continue to pair tokens with established reinforcers while gradually removing more tokens from the board until the learner needs to earn all tokens on his board to exchange for the backup reinforcer.
8. Gradually reduce pairing the token with other tangible reinforcers, but continue to pair them with verbal praise.

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Creating Token Systems that Motivate

Tokens can be physical objects such as a coin, poker chip, ticket, or sticker, or even a checkmark on a board or piece of paper. With a little creativity, you can create a token system that motivates your learner beyond receiving the backup reinforcer. Carnett et al. (2014) discovered that using tokens of perseverative interests of the learner resulted in a greater treatment effect. What this means is that if your learner has a special interest in a particular topic, you should use that topic to create your token economy system.

Token Economy and Intrinsic Motivation

When you begin using reinforcement, motivation comes from external sources (the reinforcer). The child completes the task and receives a reinforcer as a result. As the child becomes comfortable with the use of reinforcement, switching to a token economy system delays the reinforcement. Over time you can thin the reinforcement as the child builds intrinsic motivation.

As professionals, we often hear questions such as: 

“Wouldn’t it be better if the child were intrinsically motivated to do the things you wanted him to do?”

The answer to this question is both yes and no. If the child is not already intrinsically motivated to do something, the chances of that just starting to happen is minimal, especially if that child has autism. In reality, we all require some external motivation for various tasks we don’t want to do. Additionally, using some of the techniques of ABA, you can begin to build some of this intrinsic motivation.

According to Verywell Mind, “intrinsic motivation refers to behavior that is driven by internal rewards” When someone is intrinsically motivated to engage in a particular behavior, the individual finds that behavior to be naturally satisfying.  The behavior is its own reinforcer.

Many children are intrinsically motivated to please their parents or teachers; however, many children with autism are not motivated by these social factors.  Children with autism experience social deficits that often impact the value of social interactions.

ABA steps in when intrinsic motivation is insufficient. Through the use of techniques such as token economy, pairing and thinning of reinforcement schedules, you can help build intrinsic motivation for a wide variety of behaviors.

Token Economy Example to Build Intrinsic Motivation

Take a look at this example of token economy in practice:

You want to teach your client, Craig, to become more intrinsically motivated to complete a puzzle. You chose this activity because Craig struggles with engaging in appropriate leisure activities and often engages in challenging behavior when he has nothing to do. Currently, Craig completes a 12 piece jigsaw puzzle and receives a Goldfish cracker after he puts together each piece. It takes him about 5 minutes to finish the puzzle.

You find a 24 piece puzzle and get started. You set out a token board with 12 tokens. Initially, you pair each token with a Goldfish cracker and when Craig earns all 12 tokens, he will trade them in for 3 minutes of his favorite video. For this first puzzle, he earns a token for each piece he puts together and with each token, he gets a cracker. He stops the puzzle halfway through to watch the video and earns another 3 minutes when he completes the puzzle. This puzzle took him 20 minutes to complete and he appeared happy to get the Goldfish and watch the video.

Thinning the Schedule

Over time, you thin the schedule of reinforcement using the token economy system. He begins to earn a toke for every 2 pieces he puts together, then every 3. You continue to pair the tokens with social praise and incorporate social praise in between the delivery of tokens.

Over time, Craig begins to tackle 50 piece puzzles and completes the whole puzzle before earning a token. Through the process of pairing with reinforcement and thinning the schedule of reinforcement, Craig has become somewhat intrinsically motivated to complete the puzzle. With continued exposure to this pairing process, the puzzle itself may actually be able to serve as a reinforcer.

Learn More about Intrinsic Motivation and Token Economy

Research shows that social reinforcement may lead to greater intrinsic motivation. The question remains for children with autism, how do you build the value of social exchanges for children who have significant social deficits. The use of token economy and pairing may be part of the answer. Check out these articles to learn more about token economy:

Ayllon, Teodoro & Azrin, Nathan. The Token Economy: A Motivational System for Therapy and Rehabilitation. Appleton Century Crofts (June 1968).

Kazdin, A. E. (1982). The token economy: A decade later. Journal of applied behavior analysis, 15(3), 431-445.

McLaughlin, T. F., & Malaby, J. (1972). INTRINSIC REINFORCERS IN A CLASSROOM TOKEN ECONOMY 1. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 5(3), 263-270.

Deci, E. L. (1972). Intrinsic motivation, extrinsic reinforcement, and inequity. Journal of personality and social psychology, 22(1), 113.

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Token Economy Examples

For some learners, simple token boards encourage learners to work to collect their tokens to earn the backup reinforcer. Many of us are familiar with the type of token board pictured below. There is a spot to indicate what the learner is working for as well as 4 spaces to show the learner must earn 4 tokens to exchange for the backup reinforcer.

While the board above might result in improved responding, using a fun token board improves motivation and the value of tokens beyond the value of the backup reinforcer. A board such as the one pictured below holds the interest of a child who enjoys rockets (you can download this one below).

With access to technology increasing across environments, and the interest so many learners have in technology, consider using a digital animated token board. The video below shows a demonstration of some premade animated token boards available only through our Master ABA Dojo membership. They are easy to use on any device such as a computer, tablet, or smartphone.

The video below shows you how you can make your own animated token boards in Keynote. Although the video demonstrates how to do it in Keynote, many of the steps are the same in PowerPoint.

The following video describes the use of token economy and provides an example of using a digital token board when doing compliance training with a learner:

Examples of Token Economy at Home

Token economy is a great intervention to use at home. It’s easy for parents to implement and doesn’t require extensive resources. It’s a flexible intervention that parents can apply to a variety of behaviors so they don’t need to learn a whole array of interventions.

Simple token systems

Simple token boards like the ones above can be used to reinforce cooperative behavior, homework completion, or even play skills. Parents who don’t have access to a laminator or who would prefer not to spend the time creating a token board can easily purchase them on Amazon.

Parents should identify which behavior they want to reinforce. Limiting the delivery of tokens for only one behavior increases the chance of successful implementation. Parents can reinforce:

• Turn-taking
• Steps for brushing teeth
• Sitting at the table for mealtime (deliver the token every x minutes)
• Cleaning up toys
• Following directions
• Generalization of ABA programming such as motor imitation or listener responding programs

Once parents know what behavior to reinforce, they need to select backup reinforcers. Many learners enjoy a “prize box” filled with small items (usually from a dollar store) that they can choose from when they earn a reward, but if parents deliver tokens frequently, this becomes unmanageable. Parents often know what motivates their child, but struggle with limiting access to these things, making them ineffective reinforcers. Learners must only have access to the backup reinforcers for the token economy only when they earn them through the token board. The more frequently parents deliver tokens, the smaller the reinforcer they should offer. Possible reinforcers include:

• Time with a favorite toy
• A special art project with a parent or sibling
• TV or video game time
• A balloon
• Making a silly video with a parent and then watching it
• Bubbles
• Time outside
• Taking a walk
• A favorite treat

Jar System

Sometimes your learner wants something bigger and must earn it over time.  Your learner may be ready for this if he already has an understanding of token economy. Building on this foundation you can teach him the jar system.

Here’s an example of the jar system:

1. Identify what your learner wants to work for (i.e. a trip to Chuck E. Cheese, a game for his game system, going to the movies, etc You may need to work with the learner’s caregiver to identify a reinforcer that will be meaningful)
2. Find a clear plastic jar and many small items you will use to fill the jar (i.e. colorful pom poms, unifix cubes, colorful pebbles, etc.).  The size of the jar will depend on the size of the items you choose to fill the jar.  You want the jar big enough to holed 20-30 of the items, but not so big it would take 100 items to fill the jar.
3. Each time you see your learner engage in the target behavior give him one of the small items.  State clearly what he did that you noticed.  For example, “You did such a great job putting your shoes on when I asked!  Great job!  Here’s a pom pom for your jar!”
4. Your learner should collect these items in the jar.
5. When the jar is full, he has earned the reinforcer he was working for (identified in step 1 above).

This system works best for children with some advanced language comprehension skills, but you can adapt it to help children who don’t communicate verbally.  For these children, start much smaller and work up to your learner understanding this type of system.  Take your time and wait for your learner to be ready so you don’t frustrate him or yourself.

Get Creative!

You can be creative with the jar system to keep your learner interested and motivated.  If your learner wants to go to Chuck E. Cheese, schedule a time when her caregiver can take her that’s maybe 2 weeks away.  Ask the caregiver to pre-buy  the maximum number of game tokens they are willing to let your learner have.  Each time you see your learner engaging in the target behavior give him one of the tokens to put in the jar.  When it’s time for the big trip to the restaurant, he can use all of the tokens in the jar.  Instruct the caregiver not to buy more tokens while they are there.

Helpful Tips for a Token Economy or Jar System

• Once your learner earns a token or a piece for the jar, do not take them away for bad behavior.
• When first teaching the system, be generous with the tokens or pieces for the jar so that he is able to earn the reinforcer quickly.
• Always tell your learner what he did to earn the token or piece for the jar.
• Be enthusiastic when giving praise.
• Don’t argue, negotiate with, or scold your learner when they are not engaging in the target behavior.

More complex token systems

Learners who have more advanced skills may benefit from a point or other system where learners can access a bigger reward. Parents again, should choose which behavior to reinforce, but with a more complex system could choose more than one behavior. For example, the parent may award points for completing chores and being kind to a sibling as long as the learner understands which behaviors earn reinforcement.

While parents can tally points on a dry erase board or add pom poms to a jar to show progress toward a goal, the system below, Amazon provides a simple solution for rewarding multiple behaviors. Parents can assign a behavior to each color, then set the goal for each behavior by adjusting the ring. Parents can attach different rewards to each behavior or allow their child to work toward one big goal. This more complex system can reinforce behavior across a longer amount of time such as a week or even a month.

Behaviors appropriate for this type of system include:

• Homework completion
• Chores
• Sleeping in their own bed
• Leaving for school without problem behavior
• Completing the bedtime routine each night

Since it takes learners a longer amount of time to contact reinforcement, the reinforcer offered should match the learner’s perceived effort. Again, parents must limit access to the selected reinforcers when the learner hasn’t yet earned the reward. Parents can get creative to keep their child motivated. Reinforcers might include:

• A trip to a favorite arcade, restaurant, or zoo
• Video game time with a parent
• A special toy they have wanted from the store
• A trip to see something of special interest in the community (such as the UPS store for a child whose special interest is shipping)

Token economy is a great tool for use by parents. Help them come up with fun ideas to motivate their child to do those things he’s struggling to do.

Examples of Token Economy at School

In much the same way that token economies benefit parents at home, they are a wonderful tool for teachers at school. Teachers can create simple systems for individual learners or develop a more complex system to address the behavior of each student in the class. Teachers can reinforce behaviors such as:

• Homework completion
• Raising a hand for a turn to speak
• Sitting quietly
• Staying on task
• Walking quietly in the hallway
• Following directions
• Helping a peer
• Cleaning up materials
• Completion of academic tasks
• Standing safely in line

Teachers are busy and are pulled in many different directions at once. Token economy lends itself for the quick delivery of reinforcement throughout the day with more time spent delivering the backup reinforcer at a more convenient time. Backup reinforcers in schools may include:

• Items selected from a prize box or “store”
• Lunch with the teacher
• Extra recess time
• Time spent with a favorite toy
• A movie party
• Game time

Teachers can deliver reinforcers to the class as a whole or to individual students depending on the needs of her class. The flexibility of token economy allows teachers to use the intervention as needed and then change the intervention as the needs of the class change.

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Advantages and Disadvantages of Token Economy

Advantages	Disadvantages
Teaches delayed gratification	Tokens don’t have innate value
Is flexible	A token economy takes planning
Allows you to reinforce behaviors when the backup reinforcer isn’t available	Your learner might lose interest or become frustrated
Keeps your learner engaged
Can be used with multiple children
Is consistent
Teaches a real-world concept

Advantages

• Teaches delayed gratification. Your learner doesn’t get the reinforcer immediately. He must earn several tokens to be able to earn the reinforcer. This makes a token economy a natural next step after you begin using reinforcement routinely with your learner.
• Is flexible. A token economy is a framework that can be used to reinforce any behavior. You can require as many tokens, or as few, as is appropriate for the learner and the task. You can use any small items as a token, which allows you to choose items that may be of interest to your learner. You can purchase a token board or easily create one yourself.
• Allows you to reinforce behaviors when the backup reinforcer isn’t available. With reinforcement you need to reinforce the behavior as soon as it happens. If your backup reinforcer isn’t something that is immediately available all the time, tokens can help bridge the gap between the behavior and the backup reinforcer.
• Keeps your learner engaged. Over time children tend to become satiated or bored with reinforcers they receive all the time. Children often find a token economy fun and helps reduce the number of times the learner receives the backup reinforcer.
• Can be used with multiple children. A token economy is easy to use with multiple children who might be working toward different backup reinforcers.
• Is consistent. Planning a token economy helps keep you and others working with your learner reinforcing behavior consistently. This is the best way to ensure effective change.
• Teaches a real-world concept. The world economy is essentially a token economy. When you teach your learner that tokens have value, he will have an easier time understanding the value of money as he gets older.

Disadvantages

• Tokens don’t have innate value. Even after trying to teach your learner the value of the token, he might struggle to understand this idea and become frustrated with this process.
• A token economy takes planning. For a token economy to be effective you need to be sure your learner can receive, store and keep track of his tokens any time he completes the task or behavior. You need to plan ahead to be sure you can achieve this.
• Your learner might lose interest or become frustrated. If he doesn’t learn the value in the tokens, the backup reinforcer isn’t motivating or your learner doesn’t earn tokens fast enough, he might lose interest or become frustrated with a token economy. If your system doesn’t seem to be working try choosing a different backup reinforcer or making it easier for your learner to earn the tokens. You can continue to adjust over time as your learner becomes more comfortable with the process.

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Other Considerations for Token Economy

While token economy is a simple intervention, many factors influence its effectiveness. A learner must understand the trade-in value of the tokens. Some learners understand when you explain the concept of tokens to them, but others must experience the association for themselves. This requires systematic pairing and teaching strategies as explained above. Below are some additional things to consider when implementing token economy with your learners.

Thinning the Schedule of Reinforcement with Token Economy

Token economies allow for a structured way to thin the schedule of reinforcement without losing the effectiveness of the reinforcer. A child who progresses from a dense schedule of reinforcement to a thinner schedule may show reduced responding as the response effort needed to achieve reinforcement increases. Token economy can mitigate this effect by providing some lower quality reinforcement between the delivery of the ultimate reinforcer. When thinning the schedule, ensure to do so gradually to maintain the reinforcing value.

Here’s an example:

You successfully thinned the schedule of reinforcement from a FR1 to a FR4 without a noticeable decrease in responding. When you continued to thin the schedule, you observed an increase in problem behavior and a decrease in responding. You introduce the token board with 4 tokens. After teaching your client about the value of tokens, you gradually begin to deliver tokens on a VR2 schedule, leading to delivery of the actual reinforcer on a VR8 schedule.

For more information about schedules of reinforcement, read our post: Understanding Consequence Interventions: Punishment vs Reinforcement.

Satiation of the Reinforcer Options

Most children eventually become satiated on reinforcers you present over and over again. Preferences also change over time. For this reason, you should conduct regular preference or reinforcer assessments. If you’re not sure what the difference is, read this post Choosing Reinforcers: Reinforcer Assessments or Preference Assessments.

For many learners, frequent preference assessments are necessary to maintain motivation. Learners with sufficient vocabulary may simply tell you what they want to work for. Other learners need a more structured assessment.

Use of Response Cost

Response cost is a punishment procedure that may be used with token economy. When implementing response cost, specific behaviors lead to the removal of tokens earned. While this may seem like a minor consequence, it can have long-lasting negative effects depending on the learner and the situation. Use this intervention with care. Here’s an example of response cost:

You’re working with a 6-year-old boy, Travis. He is using token economy to increase his participation in classroom activities. Each time he makes an appropriate comment related to the teaching material or completes a worksheet, he earns a token. Once he has 10 tokens, he can trade them in for something from his list of available reinforcers. You decide to implement response cost to address serious, disruptive behaviors that have led to him being removed from the classroom in the past. Each time he swears in the classroom, he loses a token. The removal of tokens is response cost.

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Ethical Considerations When Implementing Token Economy

The table below presents some important ethical considerations when implementing token economy with your learners. The table includes specific action steps to help you ensure you practice in an ethical way.

Concern	Description	Action Steps to Ensure Ethical Practice
Potential for Overemphasis on External Rewards	Token economies heavily rely on the use of tangible reinforcers, which may lead to an overemphasis on external rewards rather than intrinsic motivation.	– Balance the use of token economies with opportunities to promote intrinsic motivation and internalized values. – Incorporate natural reinforcers and social praise alongside token-based reinforcement.
Limited Generalization of Targeted Skills	Skills acquired within a token economy may not readily generalize to real-life settings, limiting the practicality and effectiveness of the intervention.	– Ensure that targeted skills are explicitly taught and practiced in real-life situations. – Foster generalization by gradually fading token economies and promoting natural contingencies.
Potential for Dependency on External Reinforcement	Token economies may create a reliance on external reinforcement, making individuals less likely to engage in desired behaviors without tokens or rewards.	– Gradually fade the use of tokens and transition to natural contingencies. – Teach learners to self-monitor and self-reinforce their behavior.
Unintended Focus on Compliance Rather Than Understanding	Token economies can prioritize compliance with rules and instructions over true understanding and internalization of skills or concepts.	– Supplement token reinforcement with opportunities for conceptual understanding and meaningful learning experiences. – Encourage critical thinking and problem-solving within the context of token-based interventions.
Risk of Token Devaluation	Tokens used in a token economy may lose their value over time if not appropriately maintained or if reinforcement becomes overly predictable.	– Monitor and periodically evaluate the effectiveness of token reinforcement to prevent devaluation. – Vary the types and delivery of reinforcers associated with tokens to maintain their value.
Potential for Unequal Access to Reinforcement	Token economies may inadvertently create disparities in access to reinforcement based on factors such as social skills, behavior challenges, or cognitive abilities.	– Ensure equal opportunities for reinforcement by individualizing token systems based on each person’s unique needs and abilities. – Provide additional support or adaptations to ensure equitable access to reinforcement.
Ethical Use of Punishment Procedures	If punishment procedures are included within a token economy (i.e. response cost), ethical concerns arise regarding the potential for aversive effects or unintended side effects.	– Carefully consider the use of punishment procedures (i.e. response cost) within token economies, prioritizing positive reinforcement strategies. – If punishment is utilized, closely monitor its effectiveness and potential side effects.
Cultural Sensitivity and Appropriateness	Token economies may not align with certain cultural values or may not be culturally sensitive, potentially marginalizing or disregarding individual and cultural differences.	– Consider cultural factors when designing and implementing token economies, ensuring they align with the values and beliefs of the individuals involved. – Collaborate with learners, families, and communities to create culturally sensitive token systems.
Risk of Satiation or Desensitization	Continuous or excessive use of token economies can lead to satiation or desensitization, reducing the effectiveness of token-based reinforcement.	– Use tokens sparingly and strategically, maintaining their novelty and reinforcing value. – Rotate and vary the types of tokens and associated reinforcers to prevent satiation.
Potential for Extrinsic Motivation Override	Token economies may inadvertently undermine intrinsic motivation by excessively relying on external reinforcement, diminishing the individual’s sense of autonomy and internal drive.	– Balance the use of token economies with opportunities for choice, autonomy, and intrinsic motivation. – Foster a supportive and nurturing environment that encourages self-determination and internal motivation.
Ethical Considerations in Token Exchange	The exchange process within token economies should be conducted ethically, ensuring fairness, transparency, and equitable treatment.	– Clearly communicate the criteria and rules for token exchange to ensure transparency and fairness. – Regularly review and evaluate the token exchange system to address potential inequities or inconsistencies.
Promoting Long-Term Maintenance of Targeted Behaviors	Token economies may focus primarily on short-term behavior change, potentially neglecting the importance of long-term maintenance of targeted behaviors.	– Incorporate strategies for promoting generalization and long-term maintenance of targeted behaviors beyond the token economy. – Teach self-management and self-regulation skills to support the sustainability of behavior change.
Individualization and Individual Rights	The design and implementation of token economies should respect individual rights, autonomy, and preferences, allowing for personalization and flexibility.	– Involve individuals in the design and decision-making process of token economies, considering their preferences, strengths, and goals. – Ensure that token systems are tailored to learners’ needs, abilities, and cultural backgrounds.
Continuous Monitoring and Evaluation	Token economies should be regularly monitored and evaluated to assess their effectiveness, address ethical concerns, and make necessary adjustments.	– Establish a systematic monitoring and evaluation process to assess the ongoing effectiveness and ethical implications of token economies. – Seek feedback from learners, families, and professionals to identify any ethical concerns and make appropriate modifications.

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Research Related to Token Economy

Below is a table summarizing research articles related to implementing token economy. The table includes important action steps to help you put these ideas into practice.

Article Title	Summary	Action Steps
Breaking the silence: Using a token economy to reinforce classroom participation	This article explores the use of a token economy system to promote classroom participation. The study implemented a token economy intervention with college students, resulting in increased student participation.	Implement a token economy system in the classroom to reinforce desired behaviors such as participation. Define clear and specific target behaviors and corresponding token rewards. Establish a consistent token exchange system and provide regular feedback and reinforcement.
Effects of a perseverative interest-based token economy on challenging and on-task behavior in a child with autism	This study examines the effects of a token economy system based on a child’s perseverative interests on challenging behavior and on-task behavior in a child with autism. The intervention resulted in increased on-task behavior and reduced challenging behavior.	Identify a child’s perseverative interests and incorporate them into a token economy system. Create a menu of reinforcers related to the child’s interests. Clearly define target behaviors and token exchange criteria. Provide consistent reinforcement and gradually fade the token economy system as behavior improves.
The token economy: A recent review and evaluation	This article provides a comprehensive review and evaluation of the token economy intervention across various settings and populations. It discusses the effectiveness of token economies and the importance of individualization and generalization.	Conduct a literature review to understand the diverse applications of token economies in different contexts. Evaluate the feasibility and suitability of implementing a token economy intervention in the target setting. Consider individual differences and tailor the intervention to specific needs. Assess generalization of skills across environments and adjust the intervention accordingly.
Rate Dependence and Token Reinforcement? A Preliminary Analysis	This study investigates the rate dependence of token reinforcement by examining the effects of different token reinforcement schedules on response rates. The findings suggest that token reinforcement may have a rate-dependent effect on behavior.	Evaluate the rate dependence of token reinforcement in the target population or context. Consider the optimal token reinforcement schedule based on individual response patterns. Conduct systematic observations and data analysis to determine the most effective reinforcement rate for maintaining desired behaviors.
Token economy: A systematic review of procedural descriptions	This systematic review examines the procedural details of token economy interventions in various settings. It provides a comprehensive overview of different components and strategies used in token economy implementations.	Familiarize yourself with the key procedural components of token economy interventions outlined in the review. Adapt and customize the procedural details based on the specific needs and goals of the target population or setting. Ensure consistent implementation of token delivery, reinforcement schedules, and token exchange criteria.
The token economy: A decade later	This seminal article reviews the token economy literature and discusses advancements and considerations a decade after its initial conceptualization. It emphasizes the need for systematic research and integration of token economies with other behavioral interventions.	Stay updated on current research and advancements in token economy interventions since the publication of this article. Consider integrating token economies with other evidence-based behavioral interventions to enhance their effectiveness. Continuously evaluate and refine token economy procedures based on the evolving knowledge in the field.
A Rapid Assessment of Sensitivity to Reward Delays and Classwide Token Economy Savings for School-Aged Children	This study examines the effects of different token economies and delayed reinforcement on the behavior of school-aged children. The findings highlight the importance of considering individual differences in sensitivity to reward delays when implementing token economies.	Assess the sensitivity to reward delays in the target population. Tailor the token economy intervention by adjusting the delay between target behaviors and token delivery based on individual responsiveness. Use classwide token economies to create a supportive and motivating learning environment.
Evaluation of the value of activity-based token reinforcement (Doctoral dissertation, Rutgers University-Graduate School of Applied and Professional Psychology).	This doctoral dissertation evaluates the effectiveness of activity-based token reinforcement in promoting behavior change. The study highlights the importance of incorporating meaningful and engaging activities into the token economy system.	Design token economy systems that incorporate activity-based reinforcers that are meaningful and relevant to the target population. Create opportunities for individuals to choose preferred activities as token rewards. Continuously assess and modify the selection of activities based on the individual’s interests and preferences.
The token economy for children with intellectual disability and/or autism: A review	This review examines the effectiveness of token economy interventions for children with intellectual disabilities and/or autism. It emphasizes the importance of individualization, generalization, and considering potential limitations.	Conduct a comprehensive review of the literature on token economy interventions for children with intellectual disabilities and/or autism. Tailor token economies to the specific needs and abilities of the target population. Develop generalization strategies to transfer skills learned through token economies to natural environments. Consider potential limitations, such as dependency on tokens, and develop plans to fade the token system appropriately.
Economic Token Techniques as an Effort to Increase the Independence of Children Aged 4-5 Years	This study explores the use of economic token techniques to promote independence in children aged 4-5 years. The findings suggest that economic token systems can effectively increase independence in young children.	Implement economic token techniques in early childhood settings to foster independence. Develop age-appropriate token systems that align with the developmental abilities and interests of young children. Provide clear instructions and reinforcement for independent behavior. Gradually fade the token system as independence skills are established.
Token economies in the classroom: A review of literature	This literature review examines the use of token economies in educational settings, focusing on their impact on behavior and academic performance. It highlights the potential benefits of token economies in promoting positive classroom behaviors.	Explore the use of token economies in educational settings to foster positive behaviors and academic performance. Adapt token economy procedures to fit the classroom environment and academic goals. Involve teachers, parents, and students in the development and implementation of the token economy system. Regularly assess the effectiveness of the intervention and make adjustments as needed.
The effects of different mastery criteria on the skill maintenance of children with developmental disabilities	This study investigates the effects of different mastery criteria in a token economy on skill maintenance in children with developmental disabilities. The findings suggest that higher mastery criteria may lead to better skill maintenance.	Consider using higher mastery criteria in token economy interventions for learners with developmental disabilities to promote skill maintenance. Define clear mastery criteria for targeted skills that align with the individual’s abilities. Provide reinforcement for skill maintenance and conduct periodic assessments to monitor progress. Adjust mastery criteria based on individual performance and needs.

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References and Related Reading

Boniecki, K. A., & Moore, S. (2003). Breaking the silence: Using a token economy to reinforce classroom participation. Teaching of Psychology, 30(3), 224-227.

Carnett, A., Raulston, T., Lang, R., Tostanoski, A., Lee, A., Sigafoos, J., & Machalicek, W. (2014). Effects of a perseverative interest-based token economy on challenging and on-task behavior in a child with autism. Journal of Behavioral Education, 23(3), 368-377.

Doll, C., McLaughlin, T. F., & Barretto, A. (2013). The token economy: A recent review and evaluation. International Journal of basic and applied science, 2(1), 131-149.

Falligant, J. M., & Kranak, M. P. (2022). Rate Dependence and Token Reinforcement? A Preliminary Analysis. The Psychological Record, 72(4), 751-757.

Ivy, J. W., Meindl, J. N., Overley, E., & Robson, K. M. (2017). Token economy: A systematic review of procedural descriptions. Behavior Modification, 41(5), 708-737.

Kazdin, A. E. (1982). The token economy: A decade later. Journal of applied behavior analysis, 15(3), 431-445.

Kim, J. Y., Fienup, D. M., Reed, D. D., & Jahromi, L. B. (2022). A Rapid Assessment of Sensitivity to Reward Delays and Classwide Token Economy Savings for School-Aged Children. Journal of Behavioral Education, 1-24.

Massaro, I. (2022). Evaluation of the value of activity-based token reinforcement (Doctoral dissertation, Rutgers University-Graduate School of Applied and Professional Psychology).

Matson, J. L., & Boisjoli, J. A. (2009). The token economy for children with intellectual disability and/or autism: A review. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 30(2), 240-248.

Murniyati, B., & Wardhani, J. D. (2023). Economic Token Techniques as an Effort to Increase the Independence of Children Aged 4-5 Years. Early Childhood Research Journal (ECRJ), 5(2), 29-43.

National Autism Center. (2009). National standards report. Retrieved December 27, 2020, from http://www.nationalautismcenter.org/

Radhamani, K., & Kalaivani, D. (2023). Token economies in the classroom: A review of literature. International Journal of Educational Psychology, 13(1), 1-15.

Richling, S. M., Williams, W. L., & Carr, J. E. (2019). The effects of different mastery criteria on the skill maintenance of children with developmental disabilities. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 52(3), 701-717.